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Rhetorical Ploys |
Some argumentative techniques that have been traditionally called fallacious, are not really fallacies, at least as I have defined the term. In my view, a fallacy is a type of failed argument: it has a conclusion (stated or implied), and it has premisses (stated or implied) from which that conclusion follows. It is fallacious because the premisses from which the conclusion follows are themselves false, or at least in need of independent support.
However, while debates and persuasive conversations must involve
the use of arguments, they may involve non-argumentative or extra-logical
elements as well. Here are some of the classically-named rhetorical ploys that
sometimes appear on lists of fallacies.
| 1. Definitional Retreat (Moving the Goal Posts) | ||
| The speaker avoids being refuted by stating a new position
different from the one that had been the focus of the discussion. Sometimes
he may even claim that the new position is the one that he held "all along."
In any case, the new position is not refuted by the argument just given, so
the speaker avoids the appearance of having been proven wrong. Such a move
is not an argument (and therefore not a fallacy), but an attempt to re-frame
the topic being argued about.
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| 2. Loaded language | ||
| The speaker discusses the subject using emotional, colorful
or inflammatory language. This may indicate that the speaker feels strongly,
or it may provoke an emotional response from the opponent or the audience.
However, while loaded language may be used in the service of specific
fallacies, e.g. the Ad Hominem - Abusive, or various of the emotional
appeals, it is not itself an argument, and so is not itself a "fallacy."
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| 3. Poisoning the Well | ||
| The first person to speak tries to undermine the second
speaker by impugning his integrity, e.g. by calling him a liar or saying
that he is manipulative, or even by warning that he is "very persuasive."
This may involve the use of abusive language -- as in an Ad Hominem -
Abusive -- but it is not so much aimed at persuading the audience that the
opponent's view is false (which would be an argument) as it is aimed
at getting the audience to refuse to listen to the opponent's argument in
the first place.
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| 4. Pregnant Negative | ||
| The speaker introduces a discussion by referring to
considerations that he will not mention, implying that such
considerations are relevant, but saying that he will set them aside anyway.
"I won't mention that my opponent is a pathological liar, since it is more
important to focus on the errors in his logic." Of course, this gives the
opponent no opportunity to respond to the charge, since the charge was not
technically brought up. The ploy is not a fallacy per se, since the
presumed argument is...not really brought up. [The term "Pregnant Negative" was proposed by fellow fallacy enthusiast, Richard J. Stall, Jr.]
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| 5. Red Herring | ||
| The speaker introduces a new subject into the discussion
that has a superficial similarity to the topic under discussion. The new
subject is so emotionally charged that people cannot resist arguing about
it, even though it is off the original subject. Raising the new topic does
not really serve the goal of bringing the original subject to a conclusion
(i.e. of getting the audience to accept the speaker's position). Rather, it
distracts attention away from the original subject, preventing either
side from supporting its conclusion.
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